Brain evolution
22 important questions on Brain evolution
Give the 3 unifying principles nervous systems have to meet
Great diversity in nervous systems organization
Function to perceive stimuli and generate a response
Describe the form and function of a neuron (+ axon, synapse)
Most organelles in cell body: nucleus with genetic material, mitochondria for energy generation + others
Most have dendrites: extensions that receive signals from other neurons
Cone shaped base of axon: axon hillock -> where signals from many incoming neurons are summed up + integrated -> creates new signal transmitted by axon.
Axon: much longer extension transmitting signals to other cells at synapses
Synapse: junction between axon and another cell
Synaptic terminal of 1 axon passes information across synapse in form of chemical messengers: neurotransmitters
Name the 3 categories of functional neurons + describe function
Interneurons: integrate (analyze + interpret) information
Motor neurons: transmit signals to muscle cells -> contract
- Higher grades + faster learning
- Never study anything twice
- 100% sure, 100% understanding
For my 1st exam I got a C. Then, I started looking for ways to learn better and I came across Study Smart. Since then I have scored a A+, A, A- and another A. I highly recommend it to everyone who wants to hear it. I am so happy with it!!
I was struggling to finish all my first-year subjects for 3 years. Then I discovered Study Smart, which helped me to finish all of them within 3 months.
Because of StudySmart, things are going well in many ways. Before, I always had study stress and no time for anything. Now I feel calm and confident (because of the program). I used to score a B, now I usually score an A or A+.
Hey Chris, I really want to thank you very much for developing the platform, I usually got around C for my exams, now I scored an A+, an A and a A- !!
Since using Study Smart, my average has increased significantly. I even completed a statistics course with a A+ while I'm bad at statistics. I took on extra courses this year, because of Study Smart. Thanks so much!
Ever since I started studying with StudySmart I passed all my exams !!! No more re-sits!! At first, I was happy with a pass and now I only get good grades. Many thanks!
I aced all the courses I studied with Study Smart. For law, I first scored a D, and now an A! I’m 100% sure that I’ll pass all the courses I study with Study Smart.
I always thought I studied well. My grades were fine. I could never have imagined that applying these study skills would have such a huge and direct impact on my grades, my speed and the pleasure I have in learning.
For the first time, I finally feel totally confident about the way I learn. I have the perfect overview and make great progress in terms of speed and the grades I get. Thanks, Chris!
I immediately started to enjoy learning again, and my grades soared. All of a sudden, everything went better. I highly recommend Study Smart to all students..
Being able to create my materials online made the process of studying so much smoother and quicker. I no longer have to spend a huge amount of my time on creating my summaries.
At first, my notes were a mess. Now I use Study Smart to take my notes in a perfectly structured way. It helps me to save a lot of time and do other things I enjoy.
Students that study with Study Smart get better grades. The system applies all the learning methods in such a way that both well-performing students and students who struggle perform much better.
Hi Chris, I would like to thank you very much. Last year I scored C on a course, and this year I got an A+ thanks to your method! Thank you very much!
The largest effect is that my child is more enthusiastic about school! Every parent wants their children to be happy at school, Study Smart made it happen.
In high school, I failed several exams, and that has really changed now. I actually needed this tool very much back then. Since I started studying with StudySmart, I haven't had any D's. My average score is now an A and those are results I would have never had in the past
With my old method, I passed only 3 out of 8 courses. Since I started taking my notes digitally in Study Smart, I have passed all my courses on the first try. For me, StudySmart takes away the stress of wondering if I will pass or not.
Thanks to StudySmart, I passed all my exams, and with better grades than before! On top of that, I have mastered a very good study method now, which I am confident will help me earn my degree.
Describe the nervous system of Cnidarians (jellyfish, anemones, corals) (nets, synapses, potentials, contraction)
Most synapses electrical, not chemical -> action potentials not transmitted by neurotransmitters
Impulses bi-directional, travel through entire nerve net -> stimulation at any point -> whole body contraction
Which cnidarians show centralization and how
Swimming: mantle must open and contract in coordinated way to move through water
Feeding: mouth must bend towards tentacles holding the prey
Describe cephalisation (neural tissue, head, bilateral, enlargement, evolution, cord)
Bilateral animals: more active, display complex behaviour through concentration of sensory organs + feeding structures at head/forward moving part of body
Occurs with enlargement of anterior ganglia -> enables animal to receive sensory input and control feeding -> evolution of the first brains
Anterior brain: connected to nerve cord -> basic design for all organisms with CNS
Name the 4 times and in which groups in which encephalisation occured in vertebrate evolution and which group is clearly more advanced cognitively + why
Cartilaginous fish,
ray-finned fish,
Tetrapods (phylogenetic group humans belong to)
No group of vertebrates clearly more advanced cognitively than another (overlap of body to brain polygons of fish, birds and mammals)
Which parts of the brain become more predominant than others in vertebrate brain evolution (+ which ones get smaller)
Relative decrease in midbrain (mesencephalon)
From which 3 parts did the modern vertebrate CNS evolve
Notochord
Dorsal nerve cord
(of lancet fish (amphioxus) and sea squirt (tunicata))
What is the impact of more pressure on nerve cells (sensory receptors e.g.)
Gentle pressure -> low frequency
What are the advantages of myelinisation/describe evolution of myelinated axon (4)
Longer and thinner axons, nerves
Body growth possible
Jump start evolution of intelligence
Why do cold and warm blooded animals have to negotiate their surface to volume ratio
Warm blooded: to not lose too much body heat
Describe the blueprint of vertebrate's brains (+ function, variation)
Midbrain (metencephalon): routing of sensory input
Hindbrain (rhombencephalon): involuntary activities and motor activities
Variation between regions in different vertebrates -> reflect relative importance of particular brain function
Name the 4 general (big?) trends of brain evolution during transition from water to land
Increase compartmentalization of function
Increasing in complexity of forebrain, especially telencephalon
Physical plasticity of brain diminishes
What happened with the 3 brain vesicles (prosen, mesen and rhombencephalon) during ontogenetics development
Telencephalon
Diencephalon
Mesencephalon
Metencephalon
Myencephalon
Name the 2 smaller adaptations of the evolution of the brain
Sylvius aquaduct appears due to relative increase diencephalon and metencephalon
Name/describe the most prominent development in brain evolution (somatotopic, homunculus, input, output, function) (+ parts it includes (7) + functions)
Tectum:
Somatotopic organisation
'homonculus'
Input: retinal, auditory, somatosensory
Output: oculomotory, somatomotory, motor-centra
Main function: direct behavioural responses to spatial stimuli
Rhinencephalon:
Olfactory + vomeronasal input
Evolved to limbic system in higher vertebrates
Pallium + subpallium:
evolution from tube to hemispheres
Avian ridge (hyperstriatum):
Song system in singing birds -> similar function to language processing center in humans
Hippocampus
Olfactory pallium in primitive vertebrates
Memory storage in mammals
Globus pallidum
Eye movements
Motivation
Convolutions (led to increase in relative brain size)
Gyration
Sulcation
Increased surface area
Which structure does the myelencephalon contain + give its functions
Involuntary reflexes
Facial muscles control
Originally: control of gill arches in fish
Which structures does the metencephalon contain + give its functions
Pons: connects cerebrum and cerebellum
What is special about the cerebellum of mormyrids (elephant nose fish) + why is it disadvantageous for ectotherms to have large brains
Disadvantage: consume 1/13 of energetic costs of endotherms (dont need to heat body) but brain expenditure is simular -> therefore more expensive for ectothermics to have large brain when whole-body energy budget is considered
How do fish brains adapt to prey and habitat (give few examples)
Deeper in open waters: more olfactory
Describe the nervous systems of the following invertebrates: platyhelminthes (flatworms), Annelids, insects, spiders, molluscs, cephalopods
Organised ventrally (instead of dorsally in vertebrates)
Annelids: primitive brain of fused bilaterally organised ganglia connected by commissures, equipped with sensory organs, simplest organism with CNS
MOET UITGEBREID WORDEN
The question on the page originate from the summary of the following study material:
- A unique study and practice tool
- Never study anything twice again
- Get the grades you hope for
- 100% sure, 100% understanding
