Politican institutions: state and local government

• Shift from states to federal government.
• Influenced by historical circumstances and political practices.

• Strengthened the national government.
• Increased federal power over the states.

The United States of America (USA or U.S.A.) is commonly referred to as the United States (US or U.S.), America, or simply the States. It is a federal republic.

• States must offer "due process of law."
• Equal protection to individuals.

The USA has 50 states and one federal district, the federal district of Washington, D.C. There are 48 contiguous states between Canada and Mexico, plus the state of Alaska and the state of Hawaii.

• Limited power over tax revenues.
• Voting rights and elections restricted.

• Set precedents for legislation.
• Allows Congress to make any "necessary and proper" laws.

• Funding for specific purposes.
• Encourages states to conform to federal aims.

• Accept federal regulations.
• Determine money usage with "matching funds."

• Federal funding creates a powerful incentive.
• It pressures states to adopt federal standards.
• Ensures alignment with federal policy.
• Results in centralized government expansion over two centuries.

• Federal government expanded powers.
• Allowed Supreme Court to establish judicial review.
• Promoted frontier development.
• Provided land for settlers and transportation projects.

• Dual federalism defines separate spheres for state and federal governments.
• Each is sovereign in its realm.
• The Supreme Court limited federal power in health and safety.
• Laissez-faire economic theory influenced decisions.

• Court refused to regulate child labor, minimum wages, and working hours.
• Regulations were seen as state matters.
• Limited federal intervention in labor conditions.

• U.S. courts interpreted the Tenth Amendment and elastic clause for cooperative federalism.
• Emphasized federal and state governments working together.
• Federal domestic spending tripled as state spending remained stable.

• Initiated with New Deal laws, expanded for 40 years.
• 1950s: Supported secondary and higher education to compete globally.
• 1960s: Funded civil rights and poverty programs under Johnson's Great Society.

• Active in law enforcement, low-rent housing, urban transit, health services, and job training.
• Encouraged direct aid applications from local governments and bypassed state authorities.

• Reaction against over-regulation and unfunded mandates.
• Sought a return to dual federalism.
• Nixon's 1972 proposals aimed to convert grants to large block grants for states.

• Reverse increasing federal aid to state/local government
• Aid dropped 25% in early 1980s
• Federal grant programs grew in 1990s
• States bore more costs of new programs
• Congress set fewer federal regulations

• Federal government left issues to states
• Wealthier states compensated for federal cuts
• Poorer states struggled, neared bankruptcy
• All states cut services for budget compliance
• Businesses emerged, such as fracking, in response

• Republican triumphs indicated mood for devolution
• Clinton approved devolution of aid to families
• Congress relaxed federal regulation on telecoms, agriculture, etc.
• Supreme Court avoided enforcing national regulations

• Bush, as a "compassionate conservative," retained conservative expectations
• Debate centered on size of government
• Administration marked by increased federal power despite rhetoric

• By 2005, two large tax-reduction packages were pressed through.
• Promised wholesale tax reform.
• Federal spending enlarged by 29 percent.
• Implemented faith-based programs and a Medicare prescription drug plan.

• Prevented a decline into a Great Depression.
• Rescued financial institutions.
• Spent billions on stimulus packages.
• Launched universal health care for the first time in history.

• State and federal governments have similar structures.
• Each state has a written constitution.
• Separation of powers among three branches.
• System of checks and balances.

• Nebraska's legislature has a single-house format.
• Other states have two houses: state senate and state assembly.
• Works through committees to pass laws, similar to Congress.

• Administration
• Appointment authority
• Power of veto

• State constitutions are typically longer and more detailed.
• Provisions often reserve powers to lower levels of government or citizens.
• They are less flexible, showing resistance to broad interpretation and frequent amendments.
• In contrast, New York has 200 amendments; the U.S. Constitution has 27 since 1787.

• Often part-time roles
• Fixed terms like Congress members
• Less likely to seek re-election
• Careers often combined with other professions
• Part-time status helps maintain community ties and represents local interests effectively

• Low interest in political careers due to lower compensation
• Commuting and time management stress
• Debate on converting to full-time, well-paid roles
• Part-time status seen as beneficial for local community involvement
• Federal withdrawal from programs forces increased local government responsibilities

• Powers with the budget: Governors usually have more control over the state budget.
• Line-item veto: Allows them to accept parts of a bill and veto others.
• Weaker appointments: Governors can't appoint as many officials as the president.
• Elective state officials: Many state officials are elected, not appointed.
• Less legislative control: Limited influence over proposal of new laws compared to the president.

• Direct voter proposals: States have developed procedures allowing citizens to propose laws directly.
• Initiative process: Citizens collect signatures for a state vote on laws or constitutional amendments.
• Referendum: A direct public vote on specific issues, can result from initiatives or legislatures.
• Historical trends: Initiatives and referenda increased in the 1970s-1980s, affecting local services and limits on terms for officials.

• Voters had the power to decide various issues.
• Controversial proposals included:
• - Stricter gun laws
• - Same-sex marriage bans
• - Legalizing assisted suicide
• - Marijuana use
• These decisions reflected nationwide debates on personal freedoms and state governance.

• Special districts address issues crossing governmental boundaries.
• Handle problems like air pollution, water shortages, traffic jams.
• Many have grown since WWI, often powerful like regional governments.
• State legislatures create these districts, not to weaken governors.
• Shared responsibilities can complicate coordination among authorities.

• State and local judges often win seats through election, not appointment.
• Court terms range from 4 to 15 years.
• Judges are elected to ensure responsiveness and remove unpopular judges.
• Law requires judges to be impartial once elected.
• Political pressures may influence state and local judges.

• State supreme courts often can't secure final decisions in major cases.
• The federal constitution has precedence over state laws.
• The U.S. Supreme Court has review power over state decisions.
• This was evident in 2000 during the presidential election recount in Florida.
• The U.S. Supreme Court overturned the Florida Supreme Court's decision.

• The 50 states have about 83,000 units of local government.
• Local government units include counties, towns, cities, boroughs, and school districts.
• These various units serve distinct roles in governance.
• Each type of unit helps in organizing and managing local affairs.

• Local governments vary significantly and are established by states.
• Most states divide into counties, with variations like parishes in Louisiana.
• Counties handle rural administration and serve state functions.
• All powers of local governments come from the state.
• They provide transportation, schooling, and medical services, collecting local property taxes.

• County government typically includes a board of 3 to 12 members, a county court, and chief officers.
• Board members serve part-time and are elected.
• Their powers involve tax-raising, spending on county programs, and zoning.
• Boards cannot influence the county court.
• Officers include sheriffs and clerks, affecting residents' daily lives.

• Rural areas primarily governed by county units.
• Urban areas use cities, towns, or special districts instead of county governments.
• Special districts often handle tasks counties perform in less populated regions.
• The organization's meaning and execution can change based on local needs and population density.

• Typically indicates an urban area with a population of tens of thousands.
• Some states define smaller areas as villages, towns, or boroughs.
• Kansas: "City" may have only 200 people.
• Illinois: Suburban "village" can exceed 50,000.

• Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs)
• Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Areas (CMSAs)

• Municipal government structure varies widely.
• Typically, a mayor acts as the chief executive.
• Policy decisions are made together with a city council.
• Power distribution is defined by the city charter.

• Sanctuary cities, such as Dallas, refuse to work with federal authorities on deporting undocumented immigrants.
• 2017: President Donald Trump threatened to cut funding for non-cooperative programs.
• Long history of resistance to federal actions in the U.S.
• Cities argue mayors need undocumented immigrants for economic reasons.

• Historical Development: Authorities evolved in distinct periods, shaping their structure.
• Local Conditions: Effects of climate, resources, and diverse populations influence operations.
• State Freedom: Each state determines the powers and functions of its local governments.
• Territorial Overlap: Towns, villages, and cities might share areas within a county.

• Figure 7.1 depicts local governments and cities in the Great Lakes region.
• Shows urban centers, distinguishing between sizes: 250,000 or more, and 100,000-249,999.
• Cities like Chicago, Detroit, and Indianapolis are highlighted.
• Useful for understanding spatial distribution and governance complexity in this region.

• Complexity can make it difficult to secure services.
• Encourages reliance on organized lobbies.
• May boost special-interest groups' power.
• Government may not be effectively brought to the people.
• Some believe multiple governments are beneficial, offering significant local power.

• States test new plans in areas like public education, health-service management, pollution control, and welfare reform.
• Governmental reforms are often tried at local levels before national adoption.
• States respond to diverse conditions, but local solutions can lead to inequality.
• Federal intervention helps protect minority rights and reduces economic disparities.