1 Department of Sociology/ICS, University of Netherlands 2...

Q: What are the levels at which gender equity can be examined?

Three levels define the examination of gender equity : Societal : political and educational empowerment Household : division of labor Individual : gender role attitudes

Q: What factors at the societal level affect gender equity?

Core factors influencing societal gender equity include: Level of educational attainment Economic participation and opportunity Health and political empowerment

Q: How did the introduction of reliable contraceptive methods in the 1960s impact women’s reproductive control?

The 'pill' and other contraceptives allowed: Greater control over reproduction Stepping stone for female emancipation Shifted focus from unwanted motherhood Increased participation in education and employment Altered patterns of reproductive behavior

Q: How does employment for women affect childbearing?

Women's employment leads to: Postponement of childbearing Institutional constraints, like lack of childcare, impact decisions Availability of opportunities affects fertility behavior

Q: What is meant by the 'postponement transition' in childbearing?

This term describes a shift in timing: Delay in childbearing in Europe Observed in highly educated groups Coined by Kohler et al. (2002) Results in lowest-low fertility rates

Q: What are the consequences of higher institutional gender equity?

Higher institutional gender equity results in: Better combination of work and family Prevention of birth postponement Supportive conditions for childbearing

Q: How have personal preferences influenced parenthood in modern society?

Parenthood today reflects: Choices about motherhood Voluntary childlessness Postponement for career or life goals Considerations around economic conditions

Q: How is the Gender Development Index related to gender equity and fertility?

The Gender Development Index (GDI) indicates: Positive effect of gender equity on fertility intentions Highly disputed as a measure of true gender equality Lacks attention to income transfer arrangements

Q: What biological challenges arise from the postponement transition regarding fecundity?

Postponement impacts women's ability to conceive: Fecundity declines after age 25 Increase in sterility rates by age Conception success decreases at older ages Risk of spontaneous abortion increases

Q: What impact does the unequal distribution of household labor have on fertility?

Unequal distribution of household labor affects fertility by: Potentially reducing fertility rates Reflecting societal norms and values Influencing family planning decisions

What are the levels at which gender equity can be examined?

Three levels define the examination of gender equity:

Societal: political and educational empowerment
Household: division of labor
Individual: gender role attitudes

What factors at the societal level affect gender equity?

Core factors influencing societal gender equity include:

Level of educational attainment
Economic participation and opportunity
Health and political empowerment

How did the introduction of reliable contraceptive methods in the 1960s impact women’s reproductive control?

The 'pill' and other contraceptives allowed:

Greater control over reproduction
Stepping stone for female emancipation
Shifted focus from unwanted motherhood
Increased participation in education and employment
Altered patterns of reproductive behavior

How does employment for women affect childbearing?

Women's employment leads to:

Postponement of childbearing
Institutional constraints, like lack of childcare, impact decisions
Availability of opportunities affects fertility behavior

What is meant by the 'postponement transition' in childbearing?

This term describes a shift in timing:

Delay in childbearing in Europe
Observed in highly educated groups
Coined by Kohler et al. (2002)
Results in lowest-low fertility rates

What are the consequences of higher institutional gender equity?

Higher institutional gender equity results in:

Better combination of work and family
Prevention of birth postponement
Supportive conditions for childbearing

How have personal preferences influenced parenthood in modern society?

Parenthood today reflects:

Choices about motherhood
Voluntary childlessness
Postponement for career or life goals
Considerations around economic conditions

How is the Gender Development Index related to gender equity and fertility?

The Gender Development Index (GDI) indicates:

Positive effect of gender equity on fertility intentions
Highly disputed as a measure of true gender equality
Lacks attention to income transfer arrangements

What biological challenges arise from the postponement transition regarding fecundity?

Postponement impacts women's ability to conceive:

Fecundity declines after age 25
Increase in sterility rates by age
Conception success decreases at older ages
Risk of spontaneous abortion increases

What impact does the unequal distribution of household labor have on fertility?

Unequal distribution of household labor affects fertility by:

Potentially reducing fertility rates
Reflecting societal norms and values
Influencing family planning decisions

What statistics illustrate fecundity changes by age?

Key statistics include:

75% live birth success at age 30
66% at age 35
44% at age 40
Sterility increases from 1% (25) to 55% (45)

What is the second demographic transition theory used to explain regarding fertility?

This framework connects falling fertility rates since the late 1960s to:

Ideational change in motivation for having children
Shift to an ‘individualistic family model’
Greater individual autonomy in decision-making

What common misconceptions do people have about Assisted Reproductive Technologies and the age of women having children?

Many believe that Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) can fully address infertility, leading to misconceptions such as:

Overestimation of the age limit for childbearing, often citing over 40 years.
Lack of awareness about difficulties faced by women over 35.
Misunderstanding of risks associated with older mothers, including complications and stillbirths.

How does the second demographic transition framework link cultural changes to fertility decisions?

Key drivers of fertility decisions include:

Higher desires for self-fulfillment
Emphasis on choice
Focus on personal development
Pursuit of emancipation

What negative effects can involuntary childlessness have on individuals?

Individuals facing involuntary childlessness experience:

Higher levels of clinical depression.
Increased relationship dissolution.
Lower self-esteem and feelings of isolation.
Guilt associated with being childless.

What preferences do modern couples have regarding family size according to recent studies?

Couples typically desire:

To have only two children
Preferably one of each sex
To start families later because of the two-child preference

What are the risks associated with older mothers during pregnancy and childbirth?

Older mothers face significant challenges such as:

Greater complications during gestation and delivery.
Increased risk of birth defects.
Higher morbidity and health-care costs.
Risks of stillbirths and premature delivery.

What did Lesthaeghe and Meekers demonstrate about transitioning to parenthood?

The transition to parenthood is conditioned by:

Ideational changes
Meeting personal needs
Children as expression of self

How is breast cancer risk affected by delaying childbearing?

The relative risk of breast cancer increases by:

3% for each year a woman delays her first child.
Notably significant for women delaying from ages 20 to 25.
Linked to hormonal factors influencing breast cancer risk.

What factors complicate the review of gender roles in relation to fertility?

The experience of parenthood often leads to:

Crystalization of gender roles
Women spending more time on housework and childcare
This occurs more significantly after the first child

What positive outcomes are associated with childbearing at a later age?

Later childbearing can lead to:

Better family functioning and stability.
Improved economic position for parents.
Enhanced home environments for children, promoting long-term success.
Higher self-sufficiency in adulthood compared to children of teenage mothers.

What mixed results have recent studies found regarding egalitarian gender roles and fertility?

Research shows the relationship between egalitarian gender roles and fertility is:

Complex and mixed
Men’s egalitarian attitudes may lead to higher fertility
Alternatively, may result in lower fertility

What is the primary focus of the discussed paper regarding childbearing?

The paper aims to:

Provide insights into why families postpone childbearing.
Examine the effectiveness of social policy incentives.
Extend research focus from increasing child numbers to countering postponement trends.

What recent factors are showing influence on fertility decisions?

Fertility decisions are affected by:

Social networks
Pressure
Availability of institutional support

How do the terms fertility and infertility differ in demographics and reproductive medicine?

Fertility and infertility have distinct meanings based on context:

Demography focuses on reproductive statistics.
Reproductive medicine emphasizes health implications for individuals.
Definitions can influence treatment and policy decisions.

What has been observed regarding economic uncertainty and first birth postponement?

Economic uncertainty is linked to postponement due to:

Unemployment, temporary contracts
Unstable labor markets
Findings from OECD countries
Particularly affects young women in Southern Europe
Early skill acquisition vital for labor market stability

What does the color-coded map of Europe indicate?

Different regions are shaded based on specific categories.
Categories range from 37.8 to 45.
Northern Europe is predominantly in the 40.5 to 45 range.
Western Europe shows a range from 38.2 to 45.
Central regions predominantly fall in the 38.9 to 44.3 range.

How does job instability affect young people's decision on having children?

Studies show youth in uncertain positions:

More likely to postpone first births
Factors include temporary contracts, job instability, unemployment
14-country comparison found strong link

What was the objective of the research regarding childbearing behavior?

The research aimed to explore topics related to:

Childbearing behavior
Postponement
Delay
Family policies (maternity, parental-leave, child-care)
Taxation
Social security
Health care
Family law

What role does social safety net play in first birth postponement?

A stronger social safety net influences:

Weaker effects of economic uncertainty
Countries like Sweden and Norway exhibit less postponement
Safety nets cushion individuals from instability

What age group was the focus of the survey regarding women's perceived age limit for having children?

Responses were collected from individuals aged:

25–42 years old
This was during Wave 3 of the European Social Survey from 2006 across 23 countries.

What were the gender-specific strategies observed regarding childbearing?

Gender strategies in male-breadwinner countries showed:

Women in uncertain labor markets more likely to have children
Suggests lower labor market attachment
Lack of opportunities for women in Germany, Spain, Netherlands

How were duplicate records handled in the screening process?

Duplicate records were managed by:

Removing 4 duplicates
Resulting in a total of 326 records for further evaluation.

How do education levels affect women's response to economic uncertainty in Germany?

Kreyenfeld's study highlighted:

Educated women postponed first births
Lower educated women tend to become mothers
Difference based on unemployment and job security worries

What types of records were excluded during the screening process?

The screening process led to the exclusion of:

29 foreign-language articles (e.g., Croatian, Portuguese)
158 records unrelated to fertility postponement
67 records mainly on Sub-Saharan Africa
32 records on marriage and household structures

What have studies concluded about unemployment's influence on fertility and postponement?

Observations include:

Santow and Bracher found both individual and aggregate economic indicators impact in Sweden
Kravdal showed aggregate-level effects stronger for first birth postponement in Norway
Unemployment correlates with fertility rates

What specific content was considered unsuitable for the review's focus?

Unsuitable content included articles that were:

Technical, statistical, or econometric (n = 19)
Historical studies (n = 10)
Unrelated medical aspects, specific ethnic groups, adolescent sexuality

How did municipal economic cycles affect birth rates in Sweden?

Hoem's findings suggest:

Unemployed women faced no significant drop in first birth rates
Rates highly dependent on municipal economic conditions
Fluctuations observed in 1980s and 1990s

What does the term infertility signify in reproductive medicine?

The ability to conceive and have children is denoted by infertility. It reflects:

Inability of couples, women, or men to conceive
Related demographic terms: (in)fecundity or sterility

What societal factors have impacted fertility according to Andersson's research?

Andersson concluded:

Individual factors alone do not explain fertility trends
Societal factors and social policy play crucial roles
Notably impacts seen with low income and student status

How do demographers differentiate fertility in their studies?

Fertility in demography encompasses:

Performance of live births
Tempo of childbearing
Quantum or actual number of children born during a period

What trends have been observed regarding individuals and multiple partners before childbirth?

Individuals are >increasingly< likely to have:

Multiple partners before first child.
Increased unmarried cohabitation.
Higher rates of divorce.
Delays in marriage and parenthood.

What does postponement of fertility refer to?

It indicates a shift to a later age for:

First birth
Highly connected to quantum; delaying first births can reduce the number of children

How does cohabitation relate to marriage and first births?

Cohabitation is often viewed as a trail stage before marriage, leading to:

Delays in entry into marriage.
Increased time to having first child.
Fewer conceptions during cohabitation vs marriage.

Which reporting procedure was followed for the review mentioned in the methods section?

The PRISMA procedure includes these stages:

Identification
Screening
Eligibility
Included material for review

What factors contribute to delayed fertility or childlessness?

The likelihood of delayed fertility may involve:

Finding a supportive partner is crucial.
Relationship breakdowns prior to childbirth.
Women's choice to avoid marriage in less gender-equal societies.

How many records were initially identified for the review?

A total of 307 records were identified through:

Literature searches
Relevant demographic, social science, and medical science databases

How does housing and economic uncertainty affect age at first birth?

Housing markets can impact age at first birth by:

Requiring large down-payments for homes.
Causing financial stress and uncertainty.
Influencing decisions on starting a family.

What is the process represented in the flow diagram?

Identification:
- Records from database: 307
- Records from other sources: 23
Screening:
- After duplicates: 326
- Excluded: 29
Eligibility:
- Full-text assessed: 297
- Excluded with reasons: 158
Included:
- Studies in synthesis: 139

How do social policies influence the timing of the first birth?

Social policies can impact first birth timing through:

Availability of Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART).
Addressing below replacement level fertility.
Effects from various policy types.
Mixed evidence on direct cash payments, shown in studies.

What has contributed to the postponement of fertility since the late 1960s in the USA?

Postponement of fertility in the USA is linked to:

Increased age of first marriage for educated women.
Access to the pill for young women.
Extended education and career investment.
Avoidance of unintended pregnancies.

What are the challenges in evaluating the effectiveness of social policies on childbearing?

Evaluating policy effectiveness is complex due to:

Empirical difficulties in establishing effects.
Lack of experimental designs in research.
Unmeasured individual-level factors (e.g., fecundity).

How do contraceptive methods differ across Europe?

Variability in contraceptive use includes:

Women in Northern/Western Europe use effective methods like oral contraceptives.
Southern Europe favors less reliable techniques.
Eastern Europe shows a different contraceptive phase with many still using unreliable methods.

What findings were reported from Quebec's pro-natalistic monetary policy?

Quebec's policy led to:

Families receiving up to $8000 Canadian for childbirth.
A significant and positive effect on childbearing as per Milligan (2005).
Concerns about generalizing due to unique case aspects.

How has the mean age of mothers at first delivery changed over the decades in OECD countries?

A significant increase in the mean age of mothers at first birth includes:

≈ 1 year increase each decade since the 1970s.
Overall average age rising by ≈ 4 years (1970 to 2008).
Highest increase in Iceland (over 5 years).

What types of policies were summarized in the research examining childbearing?

The research summarized four policy types:

Direct cash payments.
Indirect transfers.
Enhancements in work-family compatibility.
Inadvertent policy effects.

What trends are observed in the age of first birth for European women?

Trends indicate that:

First births occur later than ever before.
Many European countries average near age 30 for first children.
Highly educated women usually have children at a later age.

What caution is advised regarding conclusions from existing research literature on childbearing and social policy?

Conclusions should be viewed as:

Tentative due to varying evidence.
Subject to contextual factors in different studies.
Influenced by individual-level variances and methods used.

What is significant about the introduction of oral contraceptives in the 1960s?

The introduction of oral contraceptives, commonly known as ‘the pill’, radically transformed fertility behaviour in modern societies. Key impacts include:

Enhanced reproductive choice
Shift in family planning
Influence on women's education and workforce participation

What are the main methodological challenges in measuring policy impacts on childbearing postponement?

Challenges include:

Isolating specific policy effects due to a wide range of instruments.
Temporal lag between policy initiation and uptake.
Endogeneity issues, where policies react to fertility changes.
Difficulty distinguishing policy effects on fertility level and timing.

What relationship exists between female education and age at becoming a parent?

A well-documented association exists, demonstrating a strong inverse relationship between education and fertility. Key findings include:

Higher education levels correlate with delayed parenthood
Reduced fertility rates among educated women
Influence on socio-economic outcomes

What are the three approaches used to assess policy impacts on age at first birth?

The approaches include:

Time-series variation using macro-level country data.
Micro-level studies examining individual or couple data.
Cross-national studies comparing different policy nations.

What are the mean scores across various countries for selected metrics?

The overall averages for the countries studied are:

Mean of all countries:
- 25.6
- 27.8
- 29.3
- 29.4
- 3.8

What evidence exists regarding the influence of indirect transfers on childbearing?

Evidence indicates:

Indirect transfers like tax exemptions can impact childbearing.
In Hungary, means-tested family allowances led to postponed first births.
Economic studies suggest modest effects of tax provisions for families.

What is the impact of women's education on the timing of first births in the USA?

Women's education influences childbearing ages. Increased education leads to:

Higher likelihood of later childbearing.
Women balancing student and mother roles.
Postponement of parenthood for career advancement.
Higher education correlates with better financial readiness.

How did policy changes in Hungary in 1995 affect first births?

Policy changes led to:

Switching family allowance from universal to means-tested.
Higher educated individuals losing eligibility for benefits.
Resulted in postponed entry into first birth for affected individuals.

How does educational attainment affect childbearing among European women born in the 1960s?

Women with higher education in the 1960s had:

First child significantly later than those with lower education.
Higher levels of education linked to delayed parenthood.
Balance of roles influencing decision to delay births.

What policies are aimed at improving work-family compatibility, and what are their components?

Policies for work-family compatibility include:

Maternity and paternity leave (with or without salary maintenance)
Child care availability, acceptability, accessibility, quality, and cost
Childcare subsidies and early education
Childcare facilities for children under three

What factors contribute to the delay of childbearing among better-educated women?

Several factors contribute to this delay:

Balancing education and motherhood is time-intensive.
Pursuit of career advancement increases delays.
Financial concerns related to child expenses.
Higher education leads to greater responsibility and income.

How do childcare facilities influence women's labor force participation?

Childcare facilities for children under three are crucial for:

Women's labor force re-entry
Facilitating the combination of parenthood and employment

What is the relationship between age at first birth and completed childbearing?

Generally, a later age at first birth correlates with:

Lower levels of completed childbearing.
Biologically-driven challenges faced by older mothers.
Competing interests arising from prolonged childlessness.

What effect does reducing childcare costs have on childbearing?

Reduced childcare costs positively influence:

Childbearing rates
Increased childcare availability

How have trends in the timing of first and second births changed for educated women in the USA?

Trends indicate:

Increased rates of first and second births for women over 30.
Educational differentials in timing of births widened from 1970-1990.
Women with 4-year degrees are more likely to have children later.

What was highlighted in the 1980s and 1990s German study regarding childcare?

The study showed that access to informal child care:

Significantly increased the transition to first births
Availability was more central than affordability

What does the figure show about mean age at first birth by educational level?

Data from women born 1960–1969 in Europe.
Analyzed by educational level: lower secondary, upper secondary, and post-secondary/tertiary.
Mean age at first birth generally increases with educational attainment.
Sample size: 7307 women from selected European countries.

How did increased childcare availability in Norway affect birth timing?

Increased childcare availability led to:

A younger age at first birth
Consistent trends across data

What findings did Kravdal and Rindfuss (2008) report regarding higher-educated women in Norway?

Higher-educated women tend to have later first births. Key points include:

Relationship between education and overall children born has diminished
Family-friendly policies aid this trend
Unclear generalizability to low-fertility countries

What are direct cash payments, and how do they relate to childbearing?

Direct cash payments include:

Baby bonus payments
Family allowances
Impact on childbearing quantum rather than timing

What factors in education influence reproductive decision-making according to Van Bavel (2010)?

Four educational features affect reproductive choices:

Expected starting wage
Steepness of earning profile
Attitudes towards gendered family roles
Gender composition in disciplines

What findings exist regarding cash payments and fertility rates?

Empirical evidence generally shows:

No or weak effects on country-level total fertility rates
Recent studies suggest varying results based on country comparisons

How do different tertiary qualifications impact childbearing levels, based on McDonald and Kippen (2009)?

Childbearing levels vary by qualification type:

Higher levels in caring and personal services
Lower in technical, social/humanities, and creative arts
Reflects ability to combine motherhood and employment

What is suggested about work and mother role policies?

Policies reducing work-mother role incompatibility tend to lead to:
1. Younger ages at first birth

What are inadvertent policies in relation to childbearing?

Policies and institutional arrangements that:

Influence the timing of parenthood
Are not explicitly designed for childbearing
Include aspects of the educational system, labor market, and housing market

How does Japan's new graduate recruitment system affect women's labor force participation?

This system:

Connects schools and employers
Favors recent graduates for full-time jobs
Discourages mothers from working due to difficulty re-entering the workforce

What influences the timing of parenthood besides policies?

Broader cultural factors such as:

Family-friendliness of society
Attitudes towards parenthood
Overall message about sustaining parenthood long-term

What support is mentioned for M.M.'s research?

The research is supported by:

A grant from the NWO/Dutch Science Foundation
Specifically, the VIDI Grant 452-10-012

What are the current trends leading to the postponement of first births among women?

The postponement is primarily driven by:

Increased education, causing difficulties in balancing roles
Labor force participation, where childcare conflicts with paid work
Delaying childbirth until financial stability is reached
Ideational shifts in norms regarding parenthood

How does women's increased education affect childbearing ages?

Higher education leads to:

Later ages at childbearing
Difficulty in balancing motherhood and student demands
Pursuit of careers with steep career ladders
Greater investment in human capital

What factors influence the timing of first births at a societal level?

Influencing factors include:

Gender inequity in institutions (tax/labor)
Unequal division of household labor
Individual attitudes toward egalitarian roles
Cultural shifts in norms about family and children

What role do social policy interventions play in combining female employment and childrearing?

Social policies can facilitate:

Reducing work-family conflict
Supporting combined roles of employment and caregiving
Successful examples in Scandinavian countries
Encouraging more balanced family dynamics

What economic factors contribute to the postponement of births?

Economic factors include:

Tight housing market
Inability to establish financial stability
Instability of jobs and temporary contracts
Concerns over sub-optimal employment

What challenges exist in evaluating the effectiveness of social policy incentives?