Minor term - zenuwstelse
57 important questions on Minor term - zenuwstelse
What are some of the functions associated with the brain?
- Breathing: Regulates ventilation.
- Food intake: Controls hunger.
- Sex: Governs sexual behavior.
- Sensory functions: Processes sensory information.
- Movement: Coordinates body movements.
- Intelligence: Involves cognitive abilities.
- Emotion: Processes feelings.
- Consciousness: Manages awareness and wakefulness.
What are the energy consumption percentages of a body part that is only 2% of the body's weight?
- It accounts for 15% of cardiac output.
- Consumes 20% of total body oxygen.
- Utilizes 25% of total body glucose.
What are the components involved in the anatomy and function of the nervous system?
- Central nervous system: Brain and spinal cord.
- Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves outside the CNS.
- Neuron: Basic cell of the nervous system.
- Supportive cells: Include glial cells in CNS and PNS.
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What are the key elements of intraneuronal communication?
- Action potential: An electrical impulse for communication.
- Neurotransmitters: Chemicals facilitating synaptic transmission.
What are the primary components and functions of the CNS?
- Central Nervous System (CNS):
- - Composed of the brain and spinal cord.
- - Function: Integrates and processes information.
- - Controls thoughts, movements, and sensations.
How does the PNS differ from the CNS in terms of structure and function?
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
- - Includes all nerves outside the CNS.
- - Function: Connects CNS to limbs and organs.
- - Coordinates actions and reactions to the environment.
What are the main parts of the Central Nervous System (CNS) shown in the diagram?
- Cerebrum: Responsible for higher brain functions like thought and action.
- Cerebellum: Coordinates voluntary movements such as posture, balance, and speech.
- Brain stem: Connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls basic bodily functions.
What are the key differences between human, chimpanzee, and mouse brains?
- Sizes and Comparisons:
- - Human brain: Larger, intricate pattern.
- - Chimpanzee brain: Smaller than human, similar structure.
- - Mouse brain: Much smaller, simpler morphology.
- Sections:
- - Mouse: Less complex layers.
- - Human and Chimpanzee: Complex, multilayered structure.
- Neuronal Architecture:
- - Variations in cortical layers and neuron arrangements.
What is the function of the cerebellum in the brain?
- Provides smooth, coordinated body movements.
- Helps in maintaining balance and posture.
- Essential for motor learning and timing.
- Plays a role in cognitive functions and emotions.
What are the main functions associated with the basal ganglia in the brain?
- Motor Control: Crucial in regulating voluntary motor movements.
- Learning: Involved in procedural learning and habit formation.
- Components: Includes structures like the cortex, putamen, caudate nucleus, globus pallidus, thalamus, subthalamic nucleus, and substantia nigra.
What are some diseases of the basal ganglia?
- Parkinson’s disease: Affects movement control with symptoms like tremors and stiffness.
- Huntington’s disease: Genetic disorder leading to movement, cognitive, and psychiatric issues.
What are the functions of the limbic system in the brain?
- Responsible for processing emotions.
- Essential for memory formation.
- Includes important areas like the frontal lobe, thalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, and olfactory bulb.
What are some components of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?
- Cranial nerves
- Brachial plexus
- Median nerve
- Ulnar nerve
- Obturator nerve
- Intercostal nerve
- Axillary nerve
- Radial nerve
- Lumbar plexus
- Sacral plexus
- Sciatic nerve
- Tibial nerve
- Fibular nerve (peroneal)
- Femoral nerve
- Gluteal nerve
- Iliohypogastric nerve
- Ilioinguinal nerve
What are the main components of a neuron's basic anatomy?
- Dendrite: Receives signals from other neurons.
- Soma (cell body): Contains the nucleus, processes information.
- Nucleus: Controls cell activities.
- Axon: Transmits electrical impulses.
- Myelin sheath: Insulates axon, speeds signal transmission.
- Axon terminal button: Sends signals to other neurons.
What are the characteristics of neurons with dendrites and spines?
- Neurons have dendrites with spines.
- Dendrites extend from the cell body.
- Spines increase surface area for synaptic connections.
- Critical for neural communication and plasticity.
What are the main types of glial cells?
- Oligodendrocytes: Insulate neurons in the CNS.
- Astrocytes: Support and regulate the extracellular environment.
- Microglia: Act as immune cells in the CNS.
- Up to 50x more glial cells than neurons.
What are the key functions of oligodendrocytes?
- Produce myelin
- One oligodendrocyte myelinates multiple axons
- Increase velocity of conduction
What are the key characteristics of microglia?
- Small, phagocytic cells.
- Present antigens to other cells.
- Continuously scan the brain environment for changes or threats.
What roles do astrocytes play in the brain?
- Provide structural support
- Offer metabolic support
- Regulate ion (K⁺) concentration
- Maintain transmitter concentration
- Facilitate repair
- Contribute to the blood-brain barrier
What is the function and structure of the Blood Brain Barrier (BBB)?
- Function: Protects brain from harmful substances.
- Structure:
- - Contains endothelial cells with tight junctions.
- - Astrocytes provide support.
- - Pericytes regulate blood flow.
- - Transport mechanisms for lipid-soluble substances.
What are the six main transport mechanisms across the blood-brain barrier (BBB)?
- Paracellular Transport: Water-soluble agents.
- Diffusion: Lipid-soluble agents (e.g., antidepressants, nicotine, alcohol).
- Protein Transporters: Glucose, amino acids, Cyclosporin A, gabapentin.
- Receptor-Mediated Transcytosis: Insulin, transferrin.
- Adsorptive Transcytosis: Albumin, other plasma proteins.
- Efflux Transporters: Cetirizine.
What is "Interneuronale communicatie" associated with from Van Hall Larenstein and NHL Stenden?
- Interneuronale communicatie refers to neuron-to-neuron communication.
What factors contribute to the resting membrane potential?
- Resting membrane potential is approximately -65 mV.
- Na+/K+ pump uses ATP to pump Na+ out and K+ in.
- More K+ leaks out due to membrane permeability.
What role do sodium-potassium pumps play in resting membrane potential?
- Sodium-potassium pumps help maintain resting membrane potential.
- They exchange three Na+ ions out for two K+ ions in.
- This action creates an electrical gradient.
- Uses ATP for pumping ions against their gradients.
What is the process of an action potential in a neuron?
- Resting state: Inside is negative, sodium (Na⁺) channels closed.
- Depolarization: Na⁺ channels open, Na⁺ enters cell, inside becomes positive.
- Repolarization: Potassium (K⁺) channels open, K⁺ exits cell, restores negativity.
What are the main components of a voltage-gated Na+ channel?
- α subunit comprising four homologous subunits (I-IV)
- Each subunit contains segments S1 to S6
- S4 is charged
- Both extracellular and cytoplasmic ends
- NH2 and COOH terminals
What are the characteristics of graded hyperpolarizations compared to graded depolarizations?
- Graded hyperpolarizations:
- - Membrane potential moves below resting potential.
- - No action potential if threshold isn't reached.
- Graded depolarizations:
- - Membrane potential moves above resting potential.
- - Requires reaching threshold for action potential.
Describe the process and result of a strong depolarizing stimulus.
- Strong depolarizing stimulus:
- - Rapid increase in membrane potential.
- - Threshold is surpassed.
- - Initiation of an action potential occurs.
Describe the depolarization phase of an action potential.
- Sodium (Na⁺) channels open.
- Sodium ions rush into the cell.
- Membrane potential becomes more positive.
- Depolarization initiates an action potential.
What occurs during the rising phase of the action potential?
- Sodium (Na⁺) influx continues.
- Membrane potential peaks around +30 mV.
- Depolarization reaches maximum.
- Threshold is surpassed, triggering further action potential.
What takes place during the falling phase of the action potential?
- Sodium (Na⁺) channels inactivate.
- Potassium (K⁺) channels open.
- Potassium ions exit the cell.
- Membrane potential becomes negative again.
Explain the undershoot phase in an action potential process.
- Potassium (K⁺) channels remain open longer.
- Membrane potential temporarily becomes more negative than resting potential.
- Gradual return to resting state occurs.
What are the main components identified in a chemical synapse diagram?
- Blood vessel: Supplies nutrients and removes waste.
- Vesicles with transmitter: Contain neurotransmitters.
- Synapse: Junction between neurons.
- Receiving cell: Receives neurotransmitters.
What are the components of a chemical synapse?
- Presynaptic cell: Releases neurotransmitters.
- Postsynaptic cell: Receives neurotransmitters.
- Synaptic cleft: Gap between cells.
- Excitatory synapse: Increases likelihood of action potential.
- Inhibitory synapse: Decreases likelihood of action potential.
What role do voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels play in neurotransmitter release?
- Voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels open in response to an action potential.
- Ca²⁺ ions enter the presynaptic neuron.
- This influx triggers synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitters.
Describe the interaction between neurotransmitters and ligand-gated ion channels.
- Neurotransmitters bind to ligand-gated ion channels.
- This causes the channels to open.
- Na⁺ and K⁺ ions are exchanged, leading to a postsynaptic potential change.
What are some features of a chemical synapse visible in an electron microscope image?
- Synaptic vesicles: Contain neurotransmitters.
- Synaptic cleft: Gap between neurons.
- Presynaptic terminal: Releases neurotransmitters.
- Postsynaptic membrane: Contains receptors.
What processes are involved in the end of transmitter signaling?
- Diffusion: Neurotransmitters spread away from synaptic cleft.
- Reuptake: Carrier proteins transport neurotransmitters back into the neuron.
- Enzymatic degradation: Enzymes break down neurotransmitters.
What is the role of adrenaline as a neurotransmitter?
- Adrenaline is a fight or flight neurotransmitter.
- Produced in stressful situations.
- Increases heart rate and blood flow.
- Leads to a physical boost and heightened awareness.
Describe the function of noradrenaline in the brain.
- Noradrenaline is a concentration neurotransmitter.
- Affects attention and responding actions.
- Increases blood flow aiding concentration.
- Crucial for flight-or-fight response.
What does dopamine influence in the body?
- Dopamine is a pleasure neurotransmitter.
- Creates feelings of pleasure.
- Linked to addiction.
- Repeated behaviors lead to dopamine release.
How does serotonin impact well-being?
- Serotonin is a mood neurotransmitter.
- Contributes to well-being and happiness.
- Helps sleep cycle and digestion regulation.
- Affected by exercise and light exposure.
What is the effect of GABA in the central nervous system?
- GABA is a calming neurotransmitter.
- Calms firing nerves in CNS.
- High levels improve focus.
- Low levels cause anxiety.
- Linked to motor control and vision.
Explain the role of acetylcholine in learning.
- Acetylcholine is a learning neurotransmitter.
- Involved in thought, learning, memory.
- Activates muscle action in the body.
- Involved in attention and awakening.
Describe the function of glutamate in the brain.
- Glutamate is a memory neurotransmitter.
- Most common in brain.
- Involved in learning, memory.
- Regulates development and creation of nerve contacts.
What are endorphins, and when are they released?
- Endorphins are euphoria neurotransmitters.
- Released during exercise, excitement, sex.
- Produce well-being and euphoria.
- Reduce pain perception biologically.
What is the role of acetylcholine in the body?
- Acetylcholine is crucial for muscle contraction.
- It targets nicotinic receptors.
- Curare blocks acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction.
- Botulinum toxin inhibits acetylcholine release; extremely toxic (LD50: 40-56 ng).
What are the functions and associations of Acetylcholine?
- REM sleep: Involved in promoting REM sleep.
- Learning & memory: Plays a role in cognitive functions.
- Muscarinic receptor: Interacts with these receptors.
- Atropine: Related to Acetylcholine functioning.
What is dopamine's role in movement, and where is it synthesized?
- Dopamine aids in movement regulation.
- It is synthesized from tyrosine.
- Production primarily occurs in the substantia nigra.
What role does dopamine play in the brain's reward system?
- Dopamine is crucial in the brain's reward system.
- It is linked to pleasure and motivation.
- Areas involved include the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the nucleus accumbens.
- Dopamine release is stimulated by rewards.
What does the graph indicate about the effect of dopamine on drug intake in rats?
- Dopamine is associated with the reward mechanism in the brain.
- Rats with a lesioned pathway show reduced drug intake.
- Heroin and cocaine intake is higher in sham-operated rats.
- Indicates dopamine's role in reinforcing drug-seeking behavior.
What is the role of dopamine in the prefrontal cortex and its relation to Phineas Gage?
- Dopamine in the prefrontal cortex is crucial for emotion and planning.
- The prefrontal cortex includes dorsolateral and orbitofrontal areas.
- Phineas Gage had a traumatic injury affecting this region.
- His case provided insights into brain functions related to planning and emotions.
What are the functions and precursors of serotonin?
- Serotonin is involved in:
- - Mood regulation
- - Sleep cycles
- - Pain perception
- Precursors include:
- - Tryptophan
- Also known as:
- - 5-HT (5-Hydroxytryptamine)
How do antidepressants, specifically SSRIs, affect serotonin communication in neurons?
- Presynaptic neuron releases serotonin into the synaptic cleft.
- SSRIs block the reuptake transporter, increasing serotonin in the synaptic cleft.
- Excess serotonin binds to the postsynaptic neuron receptors.
What is the relationship between serotonin levels and aggression in the frontal cortex, according to the data?
- 5-HT Level (ng/g): Bar chart showing levels in three conditions: SAL, aLAL, LAL.
- SAL (black bar): Lower serotonin levels.
- aLAL (striped bar) and LAL (white bar): Higher serotonin levels.
What roles do glutamate and GABA play in the nervous system?
- Glutamate: Functions in excitation.go
- GABA (Gamma Amino Butyric Acid): Functions in inhibition. Stop
- Their structures include amine and carboxyl groups.
What are the key concepts related to Glutamate and GABA?
- Glutamate:
- - Acts on receptors like NMDA.
- - Involves calcium ion (Ca2+) influx.
- GABA:
- - Binds to GABA receptors.
- Associated conditions:
- - Epilepsy
- Medications:
- - Benzodiazepines (e.g., Valium)
- - Anxiolytics
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