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CNS-intro

83 important questions on CNS-intro

What is the effect of low levels of norepinephrine and serotonin?

Low levels of norepinephrine and serotonin lead to depression. These neurotransmitters are crucial in regulating mood and emotional stability.

What happens with high levels of dopamine?

High levels of dopamine are associated with psychosis and schizophrenia. Dopamine plays a significant role in mood and perception.

What condition is linked to low levels of dopamine?

Low levels of dopamine are linked to Parkinsonism. Dopamine deficiency affects motor control and coordination.

What is the result of acetylcholine deficiency?

A lack of acetylcholine can lead to Myasthenia gravis. This condition affects neuromuscular transmission and muscle strength.

What effect does GABA have on the central nervous system?

GABA causes CNS depression through its action as an inhibitory neurotransmitter, reducing neuronal excitability.

What is the role of α-1 receptors under the sympathetic system?

α-1 receptors are involved in the vasoconstriction of vascular smooth muscle, affecting blood pressure and flow.

Where are α-2 receptors located and what is their function?

α-2 receptors are located in the brain and peripheral areas, playing a role in modulating neurotransmitter release.

What is the function of β-1 receptors?

β-1 receptors are primarily found in the heart, where they influence heart rate and contractility.

What do β-2 receptors affect?

β-2 receptors cause bronchodilation and affect the activity of skeletal muscles, aiding in respiratory and muscular function.

What is the role of M1 receptors under the parasympathetic system?

M1 receptors are found in the cerebral cortex, gastric, and salivary glands, influencing cognitive functions and glandular activity.

What do M3 receptors control?

M3 receptors control smooth muscle contraction, affecting various bodily functions including digestion and respiratory pathways.

What is the primary location and function of M2 receptors?

M2 receptors are located in the heart, where they help regulate heart rate and cardiac function.

What are the therapeutic uses of Bethanechol?

Bethanechol is used for:

Urinary Retention (acute non-obstructive; or bladder atony)
Paralytic ileus
Obstructive megacolon

What are Carbachol and Bathenachol used for?

Carbachol and Bathenachol are used in post-operative retention of urine and paralytic ileus, which is the obstruction of ileum due to loss of peristalsis.

What is the dosage for Bethanechol?

Dosage for Bethanechol:

10 – 50 mg PO BD to QID
2.5 – 5 mg SC TID to QID

What is another therapeutic use of Carbachol?

Carbachol is also used in glaucoma.

What are the adverse effects of Bethanechol?

Adverse effects of Bethanechol include:

Abdominal discomfort
Diarrhoea
Nausea
Vomiting
Salivation
Urgency
Flushing
Sweating
Bronchospasm

Name the choline esters that are directly acting cholinomimetics.

Choline esters that are directly acting cholinomimetics include Acetylcholine, Carbachol, and Bethanechol.

What results from excess muscarinic effects in cholinomimetics?

Results from excess muscarinic effects include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, salivation, and bronchospasm.

What is the therapeutic use of Carbachol?

Carbachol is used for treating Glaucoma.

What is the action of Pilocarpine?

Pilocarpine stimulates muscarinic receptors and causes miosis (constriction of pupil).

How can the effects of cholinomimetics toxicity be blocked?

These effects are blocked by Atropine (antidote-muscarinic antagonist).

What is the dosage for Carbachol?

Dosage for Carbachol:

1 – 2 drops in eye up to 3 times/day

What is a therapeutic use of Pilocarpine?

Pilocarpine is used for Glaucoma and is applied as a 1% solution.

What are the adverse effects of Carbachol?

Adverse effects of Carbachol include:

Blurred vision (temporary)
Headache

What are the therapeutic uses of Pilocarpine?

Pilocarpine is used for:

Glaucoma
Cycloplegia & Mydriasis

What is the dosage for Pilocarpine for Glaucoma?

Dosage for Pilocarpine for Glaucoma:

1 – 2 gtts TID in eye 1 – 6 times/day

What are the adverse effects of Pilocarpine?

Adverse effects of Pilocarpine include:

Blurred vision (temporary)
Headache
Burning sensation in eye
Redness

What are cholinergic antagonists?

Drugs that antagonise or inhibit ACh (and other cholinomimetic drugs) from binding to and activating cholinergic receptors.

What are the three classifications mentioned?

The classifications are:

Antimuscarinic/Anticholinergic Drugs
Neuromuscular Blocking Agents
Ganglionic Blockers

What is the mechanism of action for binding to nicotinic receptors at NMJ?

They bind to nicotinic receptors at NMJ preventing binding of ACh thus preventing skeletal muscle depolarization.

What are neuromuscular blocking agents also referred to as, and what are they structurally similar to?

Neuromuscular blocking agents, also referred to as muscle relaxants, are drugs that are structurally similar to Acetylcholine.

How long does the flaccid paralysis last?

They produce flaccid paralysis lasting ~35 minutes (long duration).

What are the two main types of neuromuscular blockers?

Non-depolarizing (competitive) neuromuscular blockers, e.g., Pancuronium, Atracurium.
Depolarizing (non-competitive) neuromuscular blockers, e.g., Suxamethonium.

What do neuromuscular blocking agents block at the neuromuscular junction?

They block cholinergic transmission at the neuromuscular junction.

Which muscles are affected first by their actions?

Small muscles of the face, eye and neck are affected first and the diaphragm is affected at the last.

How are neuromuscular blocking agents used in relation to general anesthetics?

They are used as adjuvants to general anesthetics.

In what order does recovery from their actions occur?

Recovery from their actions occurs in the reverse order (i.e. diaphragm first).

What do neuromuscular blocking agents enable in terms of anesthesia and muscle relaxation?

Enable light levels of anesthesia to be employed with adequate relaxation of the muscles of the abdomen and diaphragm.

What effect do neuromuscular blocking agents have on the vocal cords?

They also relax the vocal cords and allow the passage of a tracheal tube.

What is the duration of manic episodes in Bipolar I disorder?

In Bipolar I disorder, manic episodes last for a week or longer. This is part of the main classification of bipolar disorders.

What is a symptom of bipolar disorder related to mood?

An exaggerated feeling of happiness or well-being (euphoria), manic symptoms appear as elevated expansive mood.

How long do manic episodes last in Bipolar II disorder?

Manic episodes in Bipolar II disorder last for 4 days. This is part of the main classification of bipolar disorders.

How does bipolar disorder affect self-esteem?

Inflated self-esteem; grandiosity (being God, the president or being a messenger).

What are TCAs in pharmacological classification?

TCAs are Tricyclic Antidepressants in pharmacological classification. They are one of the categories of antidepressants used for treatment.

What does Cyclothymia involve and what can it lead to?

Cyclothymia involves both non-severe manic episodes and MDD. Cyclothymia can lead to Bipolar I or II. It is part of the main classification.

What change in communication might occur with bipolar disorder?

Being more talkative than normal.

How are anti-depressants classified?

Anti-depressants are classified according to their mechanism of action. The main target is to elevate the brain biogenic amines.

What does SNRI stand for in pharmacological classification?

SNRI stands for Serotonin and Noradrenaline Reuptake Inhibitors. They are a type of antidepressant in the classification.

Name the classifications under "Other Classification" for bipolar disorders.

Other classifications include:

Substance/Medication-Induced Bipolar Disorders
Bipolar due to Another Medical Condition
Unspecified Bipolar and Related Disorder

What are SSRIs in pharmacological classification?

SSRIs are Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors in pharmacological classification. They are commonly used antidepressants.

What are some factors related to psychiatric conditions that contribute to suicide?

Psychiatric Illness Co-morbidity
Personality Disorder/Traits
Psychodynamics/Psychological Vulnerability

What type of thoughts might someone with bipolar disorder experience?

Experiencing flight of ideas, racing thoughts.

Which factors related to physical and substance conditions are linked to suicide?

Substance Use/Abuse
Severe Medical Illness

How many subtypes of depression are there?

There are 3 subtypes of depression:

Lower grade of chronic depression with mild severity known as Dysthymia.
Major depressive disorder (MDD): occurs continuously or intermittently with incomplete recovery between episodes.
Double Depression: Major depressive episodes + dysthymia.

How does bipolar disorder influence energy levels or behavior?

Displaying increased energy or goal-directed behaviour.

What are NRIs in pharmacological classification?

NRIs are Noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors in pharmacological classification. They are used to treat depression by affecting neurotransmitters.

What are some environmental and situational factors that can lead to suicide?

Access To Weapons
Life Stressors

What is unipolar depression commonly associated with?

Unipolar depression is commonly (about 75% of cases) non-familial, clearly associated with stressful life events.

What does RMAI stand for in pharmacological classification?

RMAI stands for Reversible Monoamine oxidase inhibitors. They are a type of antidepressant in the classification.

What kind of optimism is associated with bipolar disorder?

Extreme optimism.

What does the brain contain according to the Mono-Amine Theory?

The brain contains biogenic amines, which are neurotransmitters derived from the amino acid tyrosine, such as catecholamines, serotonin, and histamine.

Which factors related to family and personal history are associated with suicide?

Family History
Suicidal Behavior

What are MAOIs in pharmacological classification?

MAOIs are Irreversible Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors in pharmacological classification. They are used to treat depression.

When does bipolar depression typically appear, and how is it characterized?

Bipolar depression appears in early adult life, less common, fluctuating depression and mania over a period of a few weeks. Characterised by manic or hypomanic symptoms occurring within a major depressive episode.

What judgment issues might occur with bipolar disorder?

Poor judgement resulting in risky behavior or unwise choices.

What is depression associated with and how are its symptoms categorized?

Depression is a group of disorders associated with mood. Symptoms are categorized as follows:

Emotional symptoms
Physiological symptoms

Which neurotransmitters are responsible for mood according to the Mono-Amine Theory?

Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5HT) are responsible for the mood.

What are some psychological and neurobiological factors contributing to suicide?

Neurobiology
Impulsiveness
Hopelessness

What are the characteristics of mania in bipolar depression?

Mania: enthusiasm and self-confidence, accompanied by impulsive actions, irritability, impatience and aggression, and sometimes with grandiose identity even if there is little evidence to support the belief/claim.

What are atypical antidepressants in pharmacological classification?

Atypical antidepressants are a category in pharmacological classification. They differ from traditional antidepressants in their chemical structure and mechanism.

What are examples of reckless behavior in bipolar disorder?

Reckless and risky behavior like driving fast, spending large amount of money.

What are examples of affective disorders?

Depression
Bipolar (Manic-depressive disorder)

What are some emotional symptoms of depression?

Emotional symptoms include:

Low mood, negative thoughts, misery, apathy, and pessimism
Low self-esteem: feelings of guilt, inadequacy, and ugliness
Indecisiveness, loss of motivation, inability to feel pleasure (anhedonia)

What leads to depression in the Mono-Amine Theory?

Reduction in biogenic amines activity leads to depression.

What type of behavior might indicate agitation in bipolar disorder?

Irritable or agitated behavior.

What is an example of a herbal antidepressant in pharmacological classification?

An example of a herbal antidepressant is St John’s Wort (Hypericum officinalis). It is used for its antidepressant properties.

What is an example of an anxiety disorder?

Anxiety disorders are listed as a category of psychiatric disorders.

What are some physiological symptoms of depression?

Physiological symptoms include:

Loss of appetite
Sleep disturbance
Loss of libido
Cognitive changes affecting daily life activities, thought, and action (amnesia, delirium)

What happens when there is an elevation of biogenic amines?

Elevation of biogenic amines leads to mood elevation, such as in mania and schizophrenia.

What occurs when levels of biogenic amines are altered at receptor sites?

When levels of these biogenic amines are altered at receptor sites or when receptor sensitivity changes due to down or up regulation, neurochemical depression occurs.

What are the characteristics of Maprotiline as a Noradrenaline Reuptake Inhibitor (NARI)?

Maprotiline has affinity for histamine, H1, and alpha-1 adrenoceptors. It causes seizures.

What is a key feature of Reboxetine as a Noradrenaline Reuptake Inhibitor (NARI)?

Reboxetine is not cardiotoxic and has no affinity for any neurotransmitter receptors associated with cardiotoxicity.

The question on the page originate from the summary of the following study material:

Phamarcology

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