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The Emergence of Sibling Cultures (600-750)

13 important questions on The Emergence of Sibling Cultures (600-750)

When and why did the dispute over icons begin at Byzantium? When and why did it end?

The dispute began in 726, when Emperor Leo III the Isaurian denounced sacred portraits publicly, saying that they inspired the wrong kind of devotion. In 754, sacred images were banned outright. Although the ban on icons lasted until 787 and was revived, in modified form, between 815 and 843, in the end iconoclasm was an utter failure because it banned a meaningful form of Christian worship.

What are the five pillars of Islam?

The zakat, a tax to be used for supporting the poor; Ramadan, a month of fasting; the hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca to be made at least once in a lifetime; the salat, formal worship several times a day at fixed times; the shahadah, the profession of faith: “There is no god but God, and Muhammad is His prophet.”

The seventh and eighth centuries were characterized by the rise of Islam. Explain its origin and describe how Arab Muslims were able to establish a huge realm in a very short period of time.

Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, had a series of religious experiences including the recitation of the world of God that became the Qur’an. As a political and religious leader, he set the pattern for the caliphs. In Arabia, Islam succeeded through a combination of force, conviction, and negotiation. Once many of the tribes of Arabia were united, they became a formidable military force, able to wage jihad against the decaying realms of the Persians and (to a lesser degree) the Byzantines.

What does the story of Volubilis tell scholars about the transformations that took place as parts of the Roman Empire gradually turned into parts of the Islamic Empire?

Much of the Roman city was abandoned in the sixth century, possibly because of an earthquake. The old city was turned into a cemetery, but there was continuity in habitation and a new settlement arose to the west of the former Roman city. It was populated by Berbers (Imazighen; sing. Amazigh) and also some Christians who continued living there when Volubilis came under Islamic rule. Under the Abbasids at the end of the eighth century, Volubilis may have regained some of the urban character that it had lost in the sixth century.

What led to discord among Muhammad's successors?

The discord originated in a disagreement about who should be caliph when Uthman became caliph. Although the husband of two of Muhammad’s daughters, he was resented because his family, the Umayyads, was not among Muhammad’s original followers. Uthman was opposed by Ali, the husband of Muhammad’s daughter Fatimah. Uthman belonged to the Umayyad clan, which had once persecuted Muhammad. When both contenders were killed, the Umayyads consolidated their power and kept the caliphate until 750. Their adherents became known as Sunni Muslims. The adherents of Ali became the Shi‘ites.

Who were the Merovingians and why were they successful?

The Merovingians established themselves as rulers of Francia at the end of the fifth century. Part of their secret of success was biological good fortune – they all had sons. But their political and military instincts also contributed to their success. By forging alliances with aristocratic families (both lay and ecclesiastical), they extended their power and gained wealth.

When did the Visigoths reign over Spain and what role did the Church play in their rule?

All of Spain came under Visigothic control during the sixth century. King Reccared (r.586–601) converted from Arianism to Catholicism. This event cemented the ties between the monarch and the Hispano-Roman population, which included the great landowners and leading bishops. Church councils were more frequent in Spain than elsewhere in Europe. Roman culture and classical learning were especially highly regarded in this part of the post-Roman world.

What were the strengths and weaknesses of the Visigothic kings?

The Visigothic kings were anointed, giving them religious significance (like an Old Testament king). They, alone of the Western successors of Rome, collected the Roman land tax. They established a royal capital. Their chief weakness lay in their inability to establish a stable dynasty. Royal succession very often provoked rebellions by rival noble families. The civil war that broke out after the death of King Witiza in 711 eventually made the Islamic invasion of the Iberian Peninsula possible.

What was the Quinisext council and what historical significance did it have for East-West Church relations?

The Quinisext council was convened by Justinian II in 691/692 to draw up rules of discipline for both the clergy and laity. The fact that the pope refused to attend and later would not agree to the council’s canons shows the growing rift between the Eastern and Western Churches.

How did the position of the popes change in the course of the seventh and eighth centuries?

The popes were initially hardly more than the bishops of Rome under the sway of the Byzantine rulers. Pope Gregory the Great made the popes the greatest landowners in Italy, established an ecclesiastical bureaucracy, and initiated a missionary effort that brought the English Church under Roman Catholic auspices. In the course of the seventh century, the popes freed themselves from the control of Byzantium and became de-facto rulers over central Italy. Feeling threatened by the Lombards, they allied themselves with the Frankish rulers across the Alps.

Why does your textbook call the pope "the man in the middle"? Explain his ambiguous position and discuss how and why conflicts between the Byzantine Empire and the pope widened the gap between the two.

The pope had secular power as the bishop of Rome and exceptional religious power as the bishop of Saint Peter’s see.
However, he was still merely one of many bishops in the Roman Empire and therefore subordinate to the Byzantine emperor.
Meanwhile, he was literally “in the middle” between two Lombard realms – the Kingdom of Lombardy and the duchies of Spoleto and Benevento.
As religious disagreements with Byzantium frayed ties, the pope was obliged to look for a new secular protector beyond the borders of Italy. The Carolingian king took that role.

Explain why, despite the decline in long-distance trade and the decreased importance of coined money, the European economy in the period 600–750 still might be termed “thriving.”

Although Roman long-distance trading had disappeared, European society maintained its wealth through alternative economic practices. Among these were the following:

- Money was still minted, but in silver rather than gold; this allowed for small-scale commercial activity, which became an important part of the European economy.
- The North Sea region was linked to Europe, Scandinavia, and the Muslim world. Emporia on the borders of the Carolingian kingdom served as economic centers for this three-way traffic.
- In many regions, a gift economy kept goods circulating.

List the modern states and regions whose names are derived from “barbarian” peoples or Roman terms. What are the implications of these survivals?

Continents: Africa, Asia
Modern nations: Bulgaria, England, France, Germany, Spain, Scotland
Regions: Alemannia, Andalucía (Vandals), Burgundy, Lombardy, Saxony, Swabia, Thuringia
This shows that many modern nations are accidental results of Roman political decisions, the outcomes of military conflicts and the volatility of barbarian migration. It also means that many modern nations were formed by appropriating the history of the late and post-Roman world.

The question on the page originate from the summary of the following study material:

A Short History of the Middle Ages, Sixth Edition | 9781487541019 | Barbara H Rosenwein

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The Emergence of Sibling Cultures (600-750)

13 important questions on The Emergence of Sibling Cultures (600-750)

When and why did the dispute over icons begin at Byzantium? When and why did it end?

What are the five pillars of Islam?

The seventh and eighth centuries were characterized by the rise of Islam. Explain its origin and describe how Arab Muslims were able to establish a huge realm in a very short period of time.

What does the story of Volubilis tell scholars about the transformations that took place as parts of the Roman Empire gradually turned into parts of the Islamic Empire?

What led to discord among Muhammad's successors?

Who were the Merovingians and why were they successful?

When did the Visigoths reign over Spain and what role did the Church play in their rule?

What were the strengths and weaknesses of the Visigothic kings?

What was the Quinisext council and what historical significance did it have for East-West Church relations?

How did the position of the popes change in the course of the seventh and eighth centuries?

Why does your textbook call the pope "the man in the middle"? Explain his ambiguous position and discuss how and why conflicts between the Byzantine Empire and the pope widened the gap between the two.

Explain why, despite the decline in long-distance trade and the decreased importance of coined money, the European economy in the period 600–750 still might be termed “thriving.”

List the modern states and regions whose names are derived from “barbarian” peoples or Roman terms. What are the implications of these survivals?

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